Experiential Knowledge versus Intellectual Knowledge Essay Example for Free

Experiential Knowledge versus Intellectual Knowledge Essay The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has for a long time stirred the issue on the tug between experiential knowledge (the sort of knowledge that is gained in the â€Å"streets† and practiced mostly by Huck) and intellectual knowledge (the kind of knowledge being taught in schools and by people like Widow Douglas and Miss Watson). The issue can most of the time be phrased as that between being logical and following the practical consequences of one’s logic as opposed to following the dictates of society. This is a theme that was developed early on in the book and extends up to the end. Huck, for example, defies society and chooses his own logic in Chapter 1 when he told Widow Douglas that he would prefer to go to hell since this would mean a change of scenery and being with Tom. It is known for a fact that â€Å"heaven† should be the de facto choice of destination for everyone. To choose to go to hell, with our without reasons for wanting to do so, plainly means going against what is conventional. Time and again, Huck has dealt with the part of his conscience that told him that keeping and cuddling Jim, a â€Å"property† of Miss Watson versus his natural sympathy for the man (Bennett 3). These and many other instances in Huckleberry Finn illustrate the clash between the obviously wrong societal teaching that racism and slavery is good and having sympathy and compassion for the slaves as bad versus the instinctive knowledge that sympathy and compassion towards a slave is worthwhile. In this paper, this clash between experiential knowledge, i. e. , knowledge gained by oneself through the exercise of personal logical induction and deduction gathered through experience, and intellectual knowledge, i. e. , knowledge gained through different societal instruments, shall be dealt with. More specifically, this paper shall address the issue of which of these two â€Å"knowledges† has more importance. Being an issue that is of no light matter, this paper would need to look beyond Huckleberry Finn for aid. As such, Philosophy, Ethics, and Education seem to be the most promising areas of knowledge that address the issue. Hence, this paper shall look in these directions to settle the issue. Specifically, this paper shall have the following parts: on wisdom and knowledge as personal or societal; morality as inauthentic or authentic; and educations as geared towards making the person â€Å"fully† come out versus education as socialization. The paper shall end with a conclusion. Wisdom as Personal or Societal Philosophy has dealt with the question on the source of wisdom a number of times and through different thinkers. Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle are known to deal extensively about this issue, and as such, their philosophies shall be utilized. Since Aquinas is known for extensively working on Aristotle’s works, merging the works of these two thinkers shall not pose any problems. Before anything, it would be best to first give a definition of wisdom. At least in the Aristotelian-Thomistic tradition, wisdom is a kind of knowledge that is â€Å"of paramount importance in directing human existence towards its purpose or end† (Artigas 17). It is that kind of knowledge that aids man to be a better human being, not only by providing particular knowledge, but most specially a universal knowledge that speaks of the human being’s nature, purpose and end. In the end, wisdom ought to lead to the human being’s happiness, happiness defined as a life that is flourishing. All these ideas seem to be abstract, so it would be best to concretize a bit. At least for Aristotle, living a life that is full of human flourishing means living a virtuous life in a community that allows for the continuous development of the individual. According to the Aristotelian philosopher Martha Nussbaum, this refers to a life wherein virtues, human relations, reason and other physical capabilities are allowed to flourish by the society (Nussbaum 76-78). More concretely, this means experiencing real friendship, practicing justice, exercising prudence and a host of many other virtues that Aristotle spoke of in the Nicomachean Ethics in a society that value and nurture these. It is allowing a person to have meaningful relations, to engage in activities that nourish one’s â€Å"senses, imagination, and thought,† to have bodily health, to engage in play, to have autonomous control over one’s environment and so on (Nussbaum 76-78). So far, it seems that wisdom ought to be acquired for the benefit of the individual that would most probably emanate into the good of society. That is well and good, nevertheless, we still have not answered the question as to how wisdom itself is acquired. In this respect, Aquinas has an answer. Thomas Aquinas is known for the Natural Law Theory. The theory states that â€Å"man is born with the natural facility to know the basic truths or principles or the moral order as ‘the good is to be done and promoted and the evil to be avoided’† (Panizo 56). In this respect wisdom, i. e. , knowledge about what is good and what is to be avoided that ought to lead to happiness and human flourishing, is not only something that man is capable of; in fact, man is born with this natural facility. Human beings are born with the disposition to want what is good and to avoid what is evil. Thinking about it, this medieval theory seems to make a lot of sense. Is it not true that no human being ever does something which for her/him is plainly without good or any sort of benefit? Even actions that may be considered as evil by many still have some sort of perverted â€Å"goodness† in it. Actions such as murder, drug trafficking, etcetera, still give â€Å"pleasure† to those who engage in them. But, does this mean that these actions are morally good? Aquinas would not agree. He would say that though nature has granted man the capacity to know what is good and evil and to want good over evil, still, error may happen. Error occurs once the basic principle, â€Å"good is to be done and sought after, evil is to be avoided† (Aquinas 197) is applied. In fact, there is a hierarchy of difficulty when it comes to the application of this basic principle, the most difficult application of it called â€Å"remote conclusions† are described as â€Å"not easily drawn by ordinary people, for they involve education in theology and philosophy, and deep reflection† (Panizo 59). These involve judgments on issues like euthanasia, divorce, abortion, etcetera. We have reached a point then when natural wisdom, i. e. , wisdom depending on reason alone, becomes insufficient. Life is so full of instances when â€Å"remote conclusions† are needed and called for. The sad thing is, this knowledge is hard to come by and a human being is left with no option but to listen to the dialogues of the people in the academe. For Aquinas and Aristotle, experiential knowledge is not enough. It could only get us so far. This then brings us to the discussion of the place of â€Å"intellectual knowledge† in Philosophy. According to Aristotle, human beings need a role model to live a flourishing life. An excellent person is considered the standard for most of us who are still aiming for human flourishing, for a life of virtue. An excellent person is defined as he/she whose wishes â€Å"will be what is wished in reality† (Aristotle 65), i. e. , the wishes of the excellent person is that which is truly good for the human being. An excellent person is the exact opposite of the base person to whom â€Å"pleasure would seem to cause deception since it appears good when it is not† (Aristotle 65). Thus, modeling is Aristotle’s system of knowing what is worth imitating and what is not. To add to this, it must be recalled that for Aristotle (as with the other Greek thinkers), education has an indispensable role in bringing an individual to perfection. This is the very reason why the Academy and the Lyceum were established. In these schools, individuals from different cities merge to further their knowledge, to share each other’s knowledge and in this sense socializing each other. Hence, at least in Aristotle and Aquinas’ philosophy, though natural wisdom or experiential knowledge may be the starting point, this is not enough. Intellectual knowledge is still necessary since remote conclusions are always called for to ultimately be happy and live a flourishing life. Authentic and Inauthentic Morality Beyond the epistemology of Aristotle and Aquinas is the perspective that morality or ethics may be inauthentic or authentic. This is the very idea of Michael Moga in the book, Toward Authentic Morality. According to Moga, one’s sense of right and wrong can either be wholly dependent on one’s culture (i. e. , inauthentic morality) or it could come from one’s personal choice (i. e. , authentic morality). This is the very same clash between the self and the society that we have been talking about. According to Moga, most people ascribe to inauthentic morality. This is the sort of morality that gives in to social pressure, that kind of pressure that forces us to act and think in a particular way without exactly knowing why such an action or thought should be considered moral. We would not have to go very far to understand inauthentic morality. Most adolescents and teenagers are susceptible to peer pressure when it comes to many facets of their lives. The very persistence of racism and discrimination speak of a poorly reasoned morality that rest on social acceptance. In fact, Moga sets out the characteristics of inauthentic morality. The following are the characteristics of this type of morality. Inauthentic morality is characterized by being based on certain rules and values affirmed by culture; it is universal in its application, i. e. , it is valid for everyone; they impact individuals as set of morality that is external, i. e. , the source of morality is something outside the self; these laws are anonymous; the individual is haunted by fear and shame; the moral obligation is something that comes from authority; and it is fluctuating in influence (Moga 35-39). This is the sort of morality experienced by the typical teenager who follows his/her group’s choices. Such an individual follows rules not her own, a set of rules she may find difficult to follow since it is something external, nevertheless the breaking of such group rules result to fear and shame. This teenager considers the lead of the group as the one vested with authority to enforce such rules. Though this morality is most stark among teenagers, adults may very well be living this sort of morality. We would only have to look around shopping malls to see how many adults go with the flow without thinking why. Supposedly at the other extreme is authentic morality. This morality results from one’s personal decision to accept a set of values and morals after necessary reflection. Again, this sort of morality has characteristics: it is personally chosen and accepted; it is based on a rational appreciation; it is not based on fear or shame; morality as an expression of one’s freedom; and it is based on what one personally cares for, i. e. the very principles that one values (Moga 39-41). This is the sort of morality of individuals who have taken enough time to think over his/her morals. This would be represented by an individual who does an action and could very likely explain and be personally involved in the very principle of one’s actions. This would be the individual whose sense of morality is not dependent on â€Å"what others will say† but rather on a clear set of personally chosen moral principles. Though individuals must all aim for authentic morality, Moga insists that both moralities are important. In the first place, all human beings undergo the inauthentic morality stage where parents become the sole authority from whom morality emanate. Nevertheless, we should not stay this way. After being exposed to different sets of moralities, it is the individual’s responsibility to think and chose which of these moralities shall be made personal. Thus, at least in the Ethical perspective, the social and the personal ought to go together, though in the end, the social should be for the personal. Conclusion We have seen that at least in Philosophy and Ethics, there really is no real clash between the personal and the social, between intellectual knowledge and experiential knowledge. Clashes happen in Philosophy when error exists in the mind and nothing is done to correct the error. This error may of course exist not only with individuals but also in groups such as those in the academe. Nevertheless, we have clearly stated above that intellectual knowledge is there not to ram down society on the throats of individuals but rather to further perfect experiential knowledge for the sake of human flourishing. The same may be said in the field of ethics. Both authentic and inauthentic moralities are there and both have uses in society. Nevertheless, in the end, inauthentic morality ought to be the material source of inputs for the eventual authentic morality of a person. Morality only becomes stagnant when there is no interaction between the inauthentic and authentic. To answer the question which of the two knowledges is more important, we could qualifiedly say that both are important as long as there is minimal error and that the ultimate purpose is human flourishing.

Final Project Essay Example for Free

Final Project Essay Brandt, V., England, W., Ward, S.. (2011). Virtual Teams. Research Technology Management, 54(6), 62-63 In this article Brandt, England, and Ward define what virtual teams are, they state â€Å"virtual teams are individuals working together who have never met each other in person and probably will not meet face-to-face during the assigned project (Brandt, England, Ward 2011).† The next part of the article is used to define what virtual teams consist of. Virtual teams mainly consist of members from different locations working together on a specific project. Although some members of the team may meet each other at some point, they will never see each other on a frequent basis. In the main body of the article Brandt, England, and Ward give 6 common dimensions of successful virtual teams, they are as follows: 1. Trust-Trust generally develops from a history of interpersonal interactions through which people come to know one another. In virtual teams, trust must be established through other means since team members may have no past experience to draw on and no future to reference (2011). 2. Cultural Differences-Cultural and language differences become magnified in virtual teams because it is much easier to hide errors and problems and make wrong assumptions. Unintended non-inclusive behaviors based on cultural norms can be interpreted as rudeness or intimidation. Fostering cultural understanding breaks down the barriers that can hamper success and leads to more effective virtual teams (2011). 3. Communication-Communication issues for virtual teams include both the tools or technologies for communication and the rules of engagement. Both are critical for virtual team success and what works well for co-located teams is generally not effective for virtual teams. Shared electronic workspaces such as shared websites on an intranet are preferred communication tools for virtual teams (2011). 4. Social Skills-Use caution when assembling virtual teams solely on the basis of people’s expertise and availability. Social skills should be considered as a major prerequisite for good teamwork within the virtual team. If the team is unable to establish a basis for the effective exchange of know-how, performance will suffer (2011). 5. Mission and Goal Clarity-While all teams need clear missions and goals to be effective, virtual teams have more opportunities for diverse assumptions about the team’s mission and goal to take root. Clarity comes from discussion among all team members to reach a common understanding of the team’s deliverables. Another key requirement for the virtual team is the need to highlight the expertise of each member of the team and how that expertise relates to the team’s goals (2011). 6. Rewards and Recognition-Finding appropriate ways to compensate virtual teams with global membership require creativity. The diversity of the individuals on the team along with local rules and regulations makes a common reward for all approach difficult to execute. Incentives for both project and personal performance need to take into account the diversity of the team (2011). While all of these dimensions of virtual teams are important to their success, it is also noted that all virtual teams are not the same. The importance of each dimension can vary from team to team and each separate component should be emphasized more or less depending on the team make up, assigned task, and time permitted. Wally Bock. (2003). Some rules for virtual teams. The Journal for Quality and Participation, 26(3), 43. In this article Wally Bock describes what the best uses for virtual teams are. Virtual teams are best used for problem solving, quality assurance, product development, information sharing, and a variety of other team related activities. Within the concept of virtual teams it is important understand how the team is going to work together to accomplish the activities that are assigned. In today’s modern company virtual teams are interacting in different ways tan with traditional physical teams. Bock lists three ways virtual teams are getting their assigned activities accomplished, and what the company must provide for them to be successful. 1. Meetings-Virtual meetings will be the primary way to handle specific, narrowly focused issues quickly on these types of teams; however, virtual teams that are working on long-term projects will benefit from occasional physical meetings-especially in the early stages of their work (Bock, 2003) 2. Virtual Conferences-These interactive discussions offer an effective way to bring in an expert or to allow one team member to make a presentation to others without having to gather all participants in the same place (2003). 3. E-mail Groups-A team leader or manager can use the grouping, nickname, or list making feature on a company’s email software to increase the effectiveness of a virtual team. This ensures that when any member of the team sends any communication about the project, all of the other members receive it. For most virtual teams email is the primary means of communication (2003). The essence of this article is noting the fact that virtual teams are only going to be effective when technology is involved. When virtual teams first started, there wasn’t much effective meeting technology available, but now there is. New technology allows virtual teams to be on the same page, stay in constant communication with one another, can keep the team organized, increase the ability of each member to make contributions, and can also decrease the expenses associated with physical meetings. Bock also notes that â€Å"using the available technology allows virtual teams to be more innovative, and more successful than their physical counterparts. (2003).† Dobson, Sarah. Canadian HR Reporter. Toronto: Oct 10, 2011. Vol. 24, Issue. 17 In this article Sarah Dobson gives reasons and facts why many companies are increasing their virtual team workforce. In today’s tough economy companies’ are focusing a lot of attention to cost cutting. In a survey conducted by Dobson she found that â€Å"over 50% (56%) of companies are planning on using more virtual teams, as a direct relation to cost cutting (Dobson 2011).† Another reason for the spike in virtual teams is the widespread downsizing that has been seen globally. By hiring workers in less costly markets and managing these new employees as virtual teams, companies have seen a drop across the board in expenses related to labor, travel, real-estate, and taxes. Dobson goes on to talk about the advantages of virtual teams. â€Å"One of the advantages is having the ability to move in quickly and work with people from almost any location, having a broad pool of people to pull from allows a company to get terrific team members no matter where they were located (2011). The notion of being able to pull employees from any part of the world is one of the key success factors of virtual teams. There are many multinational organizations growing rapidly in emerging markets such as China and Brazil fueling, the abundance of talent, demand for new skill sets, and a more distributed and diverse workforce. Although this article is heavy on the importance and advantages of virtual teams in today modern workplace, Dobson also points out that a virtual team can pose many challenges to other parts of a corporation. As a result of her survey Dobson found â€Å"66% of HR professionals need to do more work with virtual teams with the top three challenges being additional training, communication issues, and time zone or distance issues (2011). HR’s role in building and supporting virtual teams is extensive, this includes selecting the right people, understanding the skills and capabilities required, enabling policies over great distances, and getting separate departments such as IT working together. It’s a balancing act for HR in managing budgets and ensuring the sustainability and growth of their companies, said Dobson (2011). Mancini, Dale J. (2010). Building organizational trust in virtual teams. Journal of Behavioral Studies in Business, 2, 1-5. This article contends that trust is the root of any team’s success and states that cross-cultural understanding and communication play significant roles in building organizational trust. People’s sense of trust is developed between every interaction with each other. Trust cannot be forced into an organization or group. A virtual team, brought together to complete a major task, does not already have a foundation upon which trust already lies and therefore starts its project without established trust. Organizational trust can be hampered by cultural and communication difficulties. When team members originate from different cultures, the cultural differences in communication can create major obstacles that need to be overcome. To help foster communication in a virtual team that consists of members from different cultures there must be knowledge of each member’s national culture, which can help with understanding expected behavior in a variety of situations. If an understanding is not apparent within the team there may be a lot of unintended miscommunication which can derail a project from the start. Mancini notes that â€Å"protocols, appropriateness, mon itoring, and feedback mechanisms must all be dynamically adjusted in this unique communication environment (Mancini, 2010).† Trust is defined as reciprocal faith in others’ intentions and behavior. When dealing with a multitude of cultures in a virtual group it is important to understand that each culture has its own unique characteristics that function as a moral compass guiding the way they meet the challenges of life. Each group member must not judge but understand each of the beliefs of their fellow group members to help establish clear goals, a commitment to open communication, and trust and accept the rules and procedures of the virtual team. Only when all parties involved in the virtual team â€Å"seek not to judge but to understand (2011),† can real success begin. Naish, Richard. (2009, October). Take the virtual lead. E. learning Age. This article talks about being an effective leader in a virtual team. Nash notes a 2001 study among students by Kayworth Leider that found the most effective leaders demonstrate mentoring skills, understanding for others and empathy (Naish 2009). This is import to note as being a leader in a virtual team requires a different leadership technique than the traditional command and control style utilized in many co-location teams. Leaders must use trust over control in these virtual team environments because in many cases with the team members being in separate locations it will be difficult for a leader to oversee what is going on with the group at all times. The second part of this article is used to define the different stages of trust that develop in a virtual team. Initial trust comes from team members personal characteristics, this type of trust can be re-enforced by team members sharing information about them. Naish notes a 1999 research study that found â€Å"high-performing virtual teams spend up to half their time in the first two weeks exchanging social information (2009).† Over time initial trust can erode in a virtual team, the next phase of trust in a virtual team is cognitive trust which will take the place of the eroding initial trust. Cognitive trust is based on people’s experience with each other. It is a kind of trust that is earned not given. In a virtual team cognitive trust can be earned by prompt replies to emails, sticking to deadlines, attending virtual meeting on time, and following up on all of the promises that are made in a group. Neish concludes his article by giving three tips for being a successful leader on an effective virtual team. â€Å"A leader must develop awareness of similarities and differences in the team members (2009). Virtual leaders need to encourage team members to share information. This allows members to see how similar they are even though they are working far apart. â€Å"A leader must watch out for misunderstandings (2009).† Face-to-face meetings are important at the beginning of the project and at points during; this allows a mutual understanding to develop and allows team members to build relationships with others. â€Å"A leader must give appropriate skills and support (2009).† Virtual leaders need to ensure all team members have essential virtual team skills: self-management, communication skills, and inner-personal awareness. Leaders must also monitor performance, reward team outcomes, and make sure team member have the resources they need to be successful. It is a ba lance of all of these skills that make for an effective virtual leader. Stephen Morris. (2008). How to get real results from virtual teams: Recognize that people, tasks and technology are different but equal. Human Resource Management International Digest, 16(4), 33-35. This article is all about making sure each member of a virtual group has the proper training with the technology used to make a virtual team successful. Stephen Morris first notes that while technology is very important it is not an end all solution to having a functional virtual team. Technology can only work properly when it is put to proper use by the people using it; Morris says â€Å"people who have had no formal telephone or e-mail training can find themselves in a world where they spend hours dealing with the issues of technology and not focusing on the project at hand (Morris 2008).† It is important for group members to have the proper training on the technology they are using to help the virtual team function. In many instances virtual teams are put in pressure situations, in these types of conditions, if a group leader has made the assumption that all members have had proper training the affect can be detrimental to the group. When team members are physical present with one another, especially in high pressure situations, they tend to monitor the impact of communication. In the fast-speed communication of the new digital age, people often transmit communication without taking into consideration the impact it may have. Morris next talks about intent versus impact, his definition of intent is as follows, â€Å"Most virtual teams probably have an urgent need–intent. We are surrounded by technology, feeling under pressure and often isolated. If no thought is applied, off go the e-mails like rockets–we are under pressure to deliver, right? There is little time for small talk here. Telephone calls are to the point. ‘‘They have to understand that I am in a hurry.’’ But if we treat virtual-team members as ‘‘human doings’’ and not ‘‘human beings,’’ they often delay the work flow (2009). The important thing to understand here is even thought technology is driving the work that is being done in a virtual team situation leaders can’t view the people using the technology as technological pieces themselves. A successful virtual leader assures that all participants have the proper training in all of the technology used; they can then balance the people, tasks, and technology usage, and recognize they are all different but not equal. While technology may not be the savior it is thought by some, it is not the demon seen by others, it simply is what it is. The human element brings it to life and defines its use and impact on the world. With a little care it can be turned into the most amazing enabler for co-creation and collaboration. With a very little carelessness, it can create total disconnect.

The Effects Of Interval And Continuous Training Physical Education Essay

The Effects Of Interval And Continuous Training Physical Education Essay In todays society where appearance and health is a major part of modern life, there is a growing awareness of overweight and obesity in the World. For many reasons such as appearance, health many overweight and obese people undertake some form of diet or exercise program to overcome this. In many grocery stores fitness magazine can be found describing new fat diets shed 2 stone in 4 weeks. Weight-loss drinks have become more and more popular as they may aid in weight loss, although most people favour eating actual food than a shake every couple of hours every day. More health clubs have become available all around the country, being easy to access and offering guarantee weight loss. These clubs help people in losing weight, however usually does little to encourage them to stay as they have already received there signing up fee. Success in weight loss programs comes by adherence to exercise, however for a majority of people this is the major issue. These health and fitness clubs strive on selling membership to the general public and most dont encourage people to stay. More exercise and changes in diet are the key factors to weight loss. A change in diet helps weight loss by restricting total caloric as well as fat intake (C. Curioni P.Lourenco, 2005). A change in exercise patterns also aids weight loss by increasing caloric and fat expenditure (L N. Keim et al., 1990 V. Mougios, et al., 2006) Many individuals attempt to lose weight, though never meeting their goals. This is usually due to someone attempting a diet and exercise program for a brief time, lack of changes in their appearance or weight make the participant want to quit (A. Grediagin, et al., 1995) as well as lack of time and interest (Willis Campbell, 1992) have shown to prevent devotion to their weight loss program (Kempen et al. 1995). Body composition is one of the most frequently studied subjects (R. Bryner, et.al 1997). To date, a number of studies have reported the efficacy of high intensity exercise on various physiological parameters related to weight loss (R. Bryner, et al. 1997; J. Jakicic. et al. 2004; V. Mougios et al. 2006). Both men and women begin dieting and exercise programs in an attempt to lose weight however many fail to continue to either exercise or diet usually due to a decrease in results. However, women tend to struggle compared with men when losing weight (Gleim, 1993). Factors include smaller body sizes (Gleim, 1993), less fat free mass (Pollock et al., 1998; Westerterp, 1998), and lower resting metabolic rates (RMR) (Westerterp, 1998) than men. Mens testosterone levels are higher than women, which causes males to have a greater muscle mass and absolute RMR than women (D.W McArdle, et.al 1996). These factors cause females energy expenditures to be less than that of male, so it critical to find an exercise program or diet program for females that will create the necessary results needed for the participants to make sure they continue with that program. The Conventional way of low intensity exercise was considered to be more beneficial way to reduce weight than high intensity exercise because of the greater percentage of fat calories are burned during low intensity exercise (McArdle et al., 1996). Previous research has shown that higher intensity exercise is associated with greater improvements in cardiovascular fitness and greater caloric expenditure, which in turn can assist in improving health as well as weight loss (Perna, et al. 1999, ODonovan, et al. 2005). However it has been shown that high intensity exercise requires a greater percentage of calories (kcal) during and after exercise and is often greater than that of lower intensity exercise (ODonovan, et al. 2005). Substantially following exercise, fat metabolism and RMR has been shown to be elevated for up to 24 hours (Bielinski, Schultz, Jà ©quier, 1985; Treuth, Hunter, Williams, 1996). It is has been highly debated whether if high intensity interval training can be used as a possible treatment intervention in promoting weight loss. In continuous steady state training the speed which the participant exercises at stays the same intensity throughout the duration of the protocol. Whereas the participant completes 10 intermittently exercises at a high intensity alternating with a lower intensity every few moments in the high intensity interval training. Comparing the two training protocols over the same amount of calories expended during a high intensity high intensity interval training program as in a more moderate intensity steady state training program the substrate utilization during these exercises will differ (K. Wallman, et al. 2009). Higher intensity exercise would use primarily use glycogen during exercise whereas a more moderate intensity program would use primarily fat (K. Wallman, et al. 2009). A typical individual would interpret this information as an argument that low steady state intensity exercise is better for burning fat. However, this does not take in to account the fact that fat metabolism is increased after high intensity interval exercise, serving as the bodys fuel source for any post-exercise activity, also to replenish the glycogen stores depleted by the high intensity exercise (K. Wallman, et al. 2009) Its very difficult for many individuals to maintain an extremely high intensity for an extended period of time, thus requiring that near maximal exercise is completed in a high intensity interval training program rather than a continuous steady state program (W. Schmidt et al., 2001) Aims Compare the effects of high intensity interval training versus low intensity continuous steady state training on VO2 max in overweight women. Compare the effects of high intensity interval training versus low intensity continuous steady state training on body composition in overweight women. Lack of studies dealing with high intensity interval training programs as a potential means of weight loss over a short intervention, this specifies that such research is necessary to determine if high intensity interval training is a worthwhile means to reduce total body weight and fat mass over a shorter period. 1.3 Hypotheses / Research Questions The two research hypotheses of this study were null 1) there would be no significant differences between high intensity interval training and low steady state continuous steady state training in V02 max and in body fat percentage; alternative 2) there would be a significant difference between high intensity interval training and low steady state continuous steady state training in VO2 max and body fat percentage. Delimitations Subjects were limited to 18 to 34 year-old female non-smokers, not pregnant, not lactating, and not taking any medications that could inhibit metabolism with a body fat percentage 25% 30%. Subjects, 4 subjects were assigned to either interval training group or continuous steady state training group. Body composition was measured using bioelectrical impedance (BIA) Maximal aerobic capacity was measured using multi stage fitness test (MSFT). The equation was then used to then calculate the VO2max (AD Flouris et.al. 2004 L L ´eger, C Gadoury.1989). V02 max was used to determine the level at which a subject needed to exercise for a given exercise intensity. Limitations A small group, thus limiting the generalizability of the findings. Work environment could not be controlled for. Bioelectrical impedance could only be used for body fat percentage. Multi stage fitness test (MSFT) to assess VO2 max not graded exercise test (GXT). Definition of Terms Aerobic: exercising which requires the use of oxygen Anaerobic: exercising without the presence of oxygen as the work intensity is greater than the rate the body can transport oxygen to be used. Body mass index (BMI): describes relative weight for height. Calculated as weight (kg)/height squared (m2) x 704.5. A BMI of > 25 is considered overweight and a BMI > 30 is considered obese in women. Calorie: energy unit also known as the kilocalorie (kcal). It takes 3500 kcal to be to burn one pound of fat. Continuous training: steady-paced, prolonged exercise (McArdle et al. 1996) Interval training: a form of training that involves high-intensity exercise for a brief period of time with brief periods of rest or low intensity exercise (McArdle et al., 1996) Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max): is used to measure cardiovascular fitness Obesity: unhealthy high body fat percentages, generally considered >30% for women (McArdle et al., 1996) Overweight: unhealthy high body fat percentages, generally considered 25% to 30% body fat percentage. Steady-state: the point that is reached in continuous exercise where workload and heart rate become constant. 2.0 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Literature Review Obesity is a worldwide issue associated with serious health, social, and economic problems (Brisbon N, et al. 2005). (World Health Organisation 2005) defines overweight and obesity as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to health. Obesity has been associated with one or more diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease, which have shown to result in serious health issues and even causes of death (C. Stein and C. Colditz 2004). Obesity can be classified into two different sections these being android obesity, where the main proportion of fat mass is situated around the abdomen and waist area, and gynoid obesity, where a large proportion of fat mass is located in the gluteal and femoral areas (A. Kissebah and G. Krakower 1994). Obesity is usually occurs as the result of an imbalance between calories consumed and calories which are expended. An increased consumption of highly calorific foods, without an equal increase in physical activity, will lead to an unhealthy increase in weight. Also decreased levels of physical activity will result in an energy imbalance and lead to weight gain. It is estimated that one billion adults are overweight and more than 300 million are obese (World Health Organisation 2008). At least 2.6 million people each year die as a result of being overweight or obese (World Health Organisation 2008). Once being associated with the higher income countries, obesity is now also widespread into the lower and middle income countries, as over 65% of the worlds population live in a country where overweight and obesity kills more people than underweight (World Health Organisation 2008). This includes all high-income and middle-income countries. Globally, 44% of diabetes, 23% of ischaemic heart disease and 7-41% of certain cancers are attributable to overweight and obesity (World Health Organisation 2008). 2.2 Body Mass Index The most commonly used measure for identifying if an individual is considered overweight or obese is the Body Mass Index (BMI), is a simple index to classify overweight and obesity in adult populations and individuals. The (World Health Organisation) defines the calculations for BMI as the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters (kg/m2). The classifications of BMI are underweight (=25.0), pre-obese (25.0 29.9), obese (>=30.0), obese class 1 (30.0 34.9), obese class 2 (35.0 39.9) and obese class 3 (>=40.0). The body mass index (BMI) is the same within both sexes and for all ages of adults. However, the BMI should be considered as a rough guideline as it may not correspond to the same body fat percentage in different individuals. The BMI classification system is not yet usable for children as their bodies undergo a number of physiological changes as they grow. 2.3 Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) However bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a commonly used method for estimating body composition (Maughan R 1993). BIA first became available in the mid-1980s the method has become very popular due to its ease of use, portability of the equipment and its relatively low cost compared to some of the other major methods in assessing body composition analysis (Maughan R 1993). In spite of the perception that BIA measures body fat, the device actually determines the electrical impedance of body tissues, which in turn provides an estimate of total body water (TBW) (Maughan R 1993). TBW results from the BIA, can then estimate fat-free mass (FFM) and body fat (adiposity) (Maughan R 1993). 2.4 Exercise Regimes Changes in diet and/or exercise patterns are the primary ways for one to lose weight but a combination of caloric restriction and exercise has been shown to be a more effective nonsurgical intervention (C. Curioni and P.Lourenco, 2005). Recent research from (V. Mougios, et al. 2006) has shown that a combination of exercise and dieting has been more effective to optimize fat loss. Past research from (N. Keim, et al. 1990) agrees with this by stating that a change in diet eases weight loss by limiting the total caloric intake for the day. Caloric and fat expenditure is increased by a change in exercise patterns (N. Keim, et al. 1990). Of relevance, the exercise regime typically employed in an overweight or obese population involves stable aerobic exercise performed at a continuous low to moderately low intensity (Jacobsen et al., 2003). It is undefined whether this form of exercise (continuous), in combination with dieting, is the most effective way to lose fat or to improve general health. Alternatively high intensity exercise burns a larger number of calories when compared with low to low-moderate intensity exercise performed over the same period of time, therefore being more effective solution for fat loss (L. Campbell, et al. 2010, ). Additionally past research from (J. MacDougall, et al. 1998) has shown that high intensity exercise places a larger physiological load on the cardiovascular system compared with lower intensity exercise and therefore may lead to greater results in improvements in aerobic fitness. On the other hand (L. Campbell, et al. 2010) states that many overweight and obese individuals have l ow levels of fitness, the stress which is put upon their bodies by the high bouts of high intensity exercise may be difficult for them, if not impossible. This is supported by Jakicic et al. (2004) who reported the need for obese/overweight participants to divide their exercise sessions into smaller sections due to their incapability of performing a single continuous session of moderate to high intensity exercise. Up to now, certain studies have reported the efficacy of high intensity exercise on various physiological restrictions related to weight loss (Jakicic, Marcus, Gallagher, et al. 2004; Mougios, Kazaki, Christoulas, et al. 2006). In addition, ODonovan et al. (2005) has reported superior improvements in cholesterol, low density lipoprotein (LDL-C) and high density lipoprotein (HDL-C) after research of a 24 weeks period of high-intensity exercise, compared to moderate-intensity exercise. As Interval training includes bouts of high-intensity exercise with stages of rest or lower intensity exercise that allow for part recovery (McArdle et al., 2001), it can be used for most individuals as dependent on their fitness levels the intensity and duration of the interval bouts can be adjusted in order to match an individual, thus making this form of training a suitable option for most people. The studies which have compared high intensity interval training and continuous aerobic exercise in the o bese and overweight population have stated that high intensity interval training resulted in greater fat loss (J. King et al, 2001; E. Trapp et al, 2008). High intensity interval training can be conducted in many forms of exercises from cycling to walking, research from (L. Campbell, et al. 2010) looked at the effects of interval exercise on physiological more specifically into continuous versus interval walking in an obese population, whereas (K. Wallman, et al. 2009) exercise interventions required the participants to exercise on a cycle ergometer (Monark 828e, Sweden) as the reduced strain on the body , would occur via cycling, as an exercise intervention in an overweight population. The research done by (L. Campbell, 2010) stated that potential participants were eliminated if they participated in an excess of 30 minutes of exercise on 3 different occasions per week over the last 6 months K. Wallman, et al. (2009) also stated this. L. Campbell, (2010) also excluded participants if they were ever pregnant, taking medications in relation to beta blockers, blood pressure or a thyroid medication, whereas other research by (K. Wallman, et al. 2009, JW. J. King. 2001, K. Hansen, et al. 2005) didnt look into eliminating participants if they had these advantages. Participants were also excluded if they had diabetes, had a blood pressure (BP) superior than 160/90, had lost more than five kg in the last three months, had musculoskeletal problems that prevented them from walking (L. Campbell, 2010, K. Wallman, et al. 2009). The daily activity data for a week i.e. the number of steps per day was assessed during weeks 1 and 12 of the intervention using a pedometer (Yamax, Dig i-walker, SW-700, Tokyo, Japan) in research by (L. Campbell, 2010). The Yamax Digi-walker pedometer has been reported to accurately and reliably measure steps during walking and running in overweight and obese individuals (Swartz et al., 2003). However other studies did not take into consideration daily activity which is what I did. How different studies measured their results varied as H. Mohebbi, (2011) interventions consisted of the use body mass index and whole body fat mass and free fat mass (FFM) in order to get their results, whereas (K. Wallman, et al. 2009) used the stadiometer for to measure their height and body mass was determined using Sauter scales. Compared with how the intervention that I used to get my results would be the use of body fat percentages from bioelectrical impedance and looking into physiology adaptations by the MSFT. 2.5 Interval Versus Continuous The research results reported by (L. Campbell, 2010) used individuals who there were no significant differences for age, body-mass, height and BMI Prior to the intervention for both groups and there were no significant differences between the two groups for VO2peak (ml ·kg-1 ·min-1) K. Wallman, et al. (2009) also approach their investigations this way. The results by (L. Campbell, 2010, K. Wallman, et al. 2009, K. Hansen, et al. 2005) shown that there were no significant differences between both groups for body mass, fat mass or lean mass at baseline but there were significant main effects for time for body mass and fat mass . Further, while (L. Campbell, 2010) found there were no significant differences between groups for gynoid and android fat mass at baseline or upon the conclusion of the intervention, there was a significant main effect for time found for gynoid fat mass, with reductions in this measure being reflected by large ES in interval and continuous groups. Whereas K. Wallman, et al. (2009) found there was no significant differences, however there was a slight difference in both variables, but results revealed that while there were no significant changes in body mass and android and gynoid fat mass between groups, there was a trend for a decline in android fat mass in the interval group, as established by a large effect size in this group only. Declines in total fat and gynoid fat mass were reflected by significant main effects for time, as well as moderate and large effect in both groups (L. Campbell, 2010). L. Campbell, (2010), K. Wallman, et al. (2009) found that in addition, the decrease in overall body mass over time only was reflected by a moderate effect sizes in the interval group only. These results show that body mass in the interval group are most probable at greater total android fat mass and fat loss in the interventions, as results show interval group are (~22.5% and 28.5%) compared to the continuous group (~17% and 19.2%) (L. Campbell, 2010). Furthermore these results are also support by other similar studies that stated body mass loss (W. Schmidt et al., 2001; J. Volek et al., 2005) and fat mass loss (J. King et al., 2001) after exercise interventions (J. King et al., 2001; W. Schmidt et al., 2001) and also a diet and exercise intervention (J. Volek et al., 2005). K. Wallman, et al. (2009) research looked into the use of a calorie restricted diet when comparing interval versus continuous, while other studies (J. King, et al 2001, K. Hansen, et al. 2005, L. Campbell, 2010) have shown not to directly look into calorie restricted diet. Consequently research suggests a combination of both high intensity interval training and calorie restricted diet has shown beneficial improvement in VLDL-C (L. Campbell, 2010). The studies which have compared high intensity interval training to continuous aerobic exercise in the obese and overweight population have reported that high intensity interval training resulted in greater fat loss (J W. King, et al, 2001; E. Trapp et al, 2008). Nonetheless, the results of the study conducted by (C. Perry, 2008) suggest that further investigation is necessary into the use of interval training on cardiovascular fitness and fat loss amongst an overweight or obese population. C. Perry, (2008) In particular, a longer intervention period, as well as a higher work to relief ratio associated with the interval exercise may result in greater improvements in cardiovascular fitness and fat loss. As the results have shown that interval training appears to be an effective form of exercise when improving aerobic performance and fat loss, (C. Perry, 2008) states that future studies should examine the adoptability and sustainability of a cycling interval training regimen in the overweight and obese population. Furthermore J W. King, et al (2001) indicated that there is a lack of studies investigating high intensity interval training programs as a potential means of weight loss compared with low continuous training. This shows that such rese arch must be conducted to determine if high intensity interval training is a viable means to reduce total body weight and fat mass when in complaisant with low continuous training. 2.6 Summary Even though previous studies exist concerning the effect of high intensity interval training on performance, interval training has yet to be assessed in a shorter duration than other studies which look into the effects of interval training. Most studies look into the effects of high intensity interval training over a period of 8 weeks or longer (Jakicic, Marcus, Gallagher, et al. 2004; Mougios, Kazaki, Christoulas, et al. 2006). These studies have found a significant difference when comparing body fat percentage/Body composition and performance (J. King et al, 2001; E. Trapp et al, 2008). However if an high intensity interval training program is shown to produce changes in body weight and body composition in a shorter time than 8 weeks plus, perhaps that type of program would be more appealing to those who have difficulty adhering to longer continuous steady state exercise programs. 3.0 CHAPTER THREE METHOD The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of high intensity interval versus low steady state continuous training on weight loss and body composition in overweight population. This section will discuss the subjects, instrumentation, research protocol, and the design and analyses that were used in comparing the effects of the two training methods. 3.1 Subjects The primary criterion for subject selection will be that all subjects will be clinically overweight and obese, overweight is classified having an body fat percentage of 25% During the testing the subjects were not be allowed to make any conscious changes in their eating habits. The purpose of the study was to determine the effects of high intensity interval and low intensity steady state training protocols on weight loss and physiological adaptations, any changes in energy consumption would have an effect on this data. For this study there were 8 subjects/volunteers, which were randomized into two different groups using randomized software, these groups being high intensity interval and continuous steady state training groups. The 8 subjects will be randomly drawn into high intensity interval training and low intensity steady state training groups though computer software tools which was also agreed with by participants and the university itself. Prior to the study, all subjects were asked to sign an informed consent form (Appendix A) and Par-Q (Appendix B). The informed consent notified subjects of all potential risks involved, including the possibility of musculoskeletal injury and myocardial infarction (J. King et al, 2001) while the Par-Q gave detailed information about the participants health. The experimental protocol and associated risks were explained orally and in writing form to all subjects before written consent will be obtained. The subjects were told that they would be free to leave the study at any time and that their personal records would be kept confidential. 3.2 Tests and Equipment Each subject completed a 4 week training program, the subjects were told that they would be free to leave the study at any time and that their personal records would be kept confidential. Prior to the study the subjects/volunteers were asked if they are involved in a structured training program and will be excluded from the study if they dont meet the criteria. As this study dealt with the effect of high intensity interval and low intensity steady state training protocols on weight loss, body composition and physiological adaptations, there were be several measures taken. A VO2 max test prior to the study was conducted in order to determine appropriate absolute intensity levels for the subjects. The dependent variables, weight and body composition, was measured at both the beginning and end of the study. Body fat percentage was also recorded both at the beginning and end of the study at similar times in the afternoon. The most precise way to assess aerobic capacity is the direct measurement of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) during a graded exercise test (GXT). However, the direct measurement of VO2max is often limited to laboratory, clinical, and research settings. The requirement to assess aerobic capacity in the general public has led to different development of various field based testing. These tests included the multistage fitness test and 1 mile walk test, previous research by (D J. George et al., 1997; P D. Heil et al., 1995; H M. Malek et al., 2005) reported valid estimates of aerobic capacity when using field based VO2 max testing. The multistage fitness was used in this study due to other commitments where all participants couldnt arrive at the laboratorys to conduct the GXT. The 20-m multi-stage shuttle run test (MSFT) is also known as the Leger test, the beep test, the bleep test (Leger, Mercier, Gadoury, Lambert, 1988). MSFT (20-m MSFT, Leger et al., 1988; Leger et al., 1989) is often the most used field based fitness test used when testing aerobic capacities of a person, recent study by (Wong et al., 2001; Mota et al., 2002; Guerra et al., 2002; Vicente-Rodriguez et al., 2003; Vicente-Rodriguez et al., 2004) have used the 20-m multistage fitness test for the measurement of aerobic capacity. The MSFT involved the test subjects to do continuous running in-between two lines which were situated 20 metres apart in time to the recorded beeps. As the test subjects reach the marked line they then stop, turn around by 180 ° and run in the opposite direction towards the other marked line. The subjects were told they must stop when instructed by a beep from a CD. The starting speed of the MSFT is 8.5 km/h and after about a minute a sound indicates an increase in speed (0.5 km/h per minute) (Leger, A L Lambert, J. 1982). As the level increase the time it take for the beeps decreases. The test was stopped when a subject was unable to keep up with the pace dictated by the beep sound, and their score was taken. Throughout the test, the participants had to make sure to cover the set distance and touch each line with their foot before proceeding towards the next line. In order to calculate the predicted VO2 max (predËâ„ ¢VO2 max) for the MSFT an appropriate equations was used (AD Flouris et.al. 2004 L L ´eger, C Gadoury.1989): à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ MSFT: predËâ„ ¢VO2max = MAS ÃÆ'- 6.592 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 32.678 Each subjects was required to attend the exercise physiology laboratory at Wolverhampton university where their height can be assessed using a stadiometer, their mass be assessed and body fat percentage using bioelectrical impedance. However due to time arrangements participants couldnt make it to physiology laboratories for testing, therefore the testing was brought to the participants through the portability of the bioelectrical impedance and a portable stadiometer was used to assess the participants height, also they weight was assessed using scales (Seca 769 Upright Scales). Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) has emerged as one of the most popular methods for estimating relative body fat (National Institutes of Health Technology 1996 V H. Heyward et al., 1996). BIA was first developed in the 1960s; BIA is also relatively simple, quick and portable and is used in diverse settings, including private clinics and hospitals. National Institutes of Health Technology (1996) has shown that the BIA method to have approximately the same accuracy as of the skinfold method in a diverse group as also found by (V H. Heyward et al., 1996 D W. Lockner et al., 1999). Before testing subjects could moderately consume drinks or food, as long as the fluid or food remains within the stomach, not absorbed by body tissue, test results will not be influenced (V H. Heyward et al., 1996). To conduct the BIA all subjects were asked to lie in a supine position on a non-conducting surface, with the arms slightly abducted from the trunk and the legs slightly separated the particular model used was the (Bodystat 1500; Bodystat Ltd, Douglas, UK). The electrodes were placed on the hand and foot of the right side of the body and repeat tests were applied to the same side of the body, new electrodes were employed for each subject. A non-susceptible current then entered the body through the first pair of hand-foot electrodes, and then the second electrode pair is used to determine the voltage drop caused by the body water dependent impedance or total resistance which then determines body fat percentage (V H. Heyward et al., 1996) a few seconds later the test was completed. <

The Fifth Child Essay -- literary Analysis, Doris Lessing

The intricate complexity and astonishingly realistic descriptions of space in Doris Lessing’s The Fifth Child masterfully illuminates society’s dire inability to cope with it’s imperfection. Society demands immaculate perfection, a world free of defect, and the lust to live in a flawless utopia drives the identification and elimination of crude invalids. These desolate individuals are feared and deemed to be barbarous degenerates who must be placed beyond the boarders of functioning society to assure an uncorrupted world. Less desirable beings are cast into heterotopias or â€Å"counter-sites† while society denies their existence and feigns perfection. Lessing’s novel tears this image down and hastily exposes society’s despicable attempts to marginalize, blame, and exile those regarded as abnormal and dysfunctional in the supposedly immaculate world. In The Fifth Child the precisely executed heterotopia of the institution draws on this theor y of a parallel space as a capsule for undesired bodies and Harriet, the mother of a repugnant beast, is victim to society’s brutality. Harriet is an outcast and her remarkably horrific interaction with the cruel institution further alienates her from her family and miserably casts her into her own tumultuous heterotopia. Throughout the novel Harriet’s striking differences are juxtaposed against the societal trends of the time and she is commonly viewed as a misplaced oddity. Early descriptions in The Fifth Child define Harriet as abnormal and her image places her outside of the robust and transitional society in which she lives. Harriet is a curious misfit and she â€Å"sometimes felt herself unfortunate and deficient in some way† (10). This recognition of inexplicable peculiarities soon establishe... ...ly illuminates and exploits the despicable views and problems in society. The novel exemplifies society’s elitist attitude and unjust marginalization of individuals who are regarded as degenerate, invalid and grotesque through Harriet. Her harrowing interactions with the magnificently developed and horrific institution highlights the pathetic attempts of society to displace individuals and dispose of them beyond their functioning boarders. In addition, Harriet’s parallels with the institution lead to her alienation from the world. She is regarded as grossly unnatural, criminalized, and left alone to raise her difficult son Ben. It is clear that Harriet’s unfortunate interaction and connection to the ghastly institution uncovers society’s unforgiving demeanor and demonstrates the terrible and irreparable rift between misunderstood, peculiar individuals and the world.

Sports Mascots Honor the Native American Indian Essay example -- Native

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The year is 1991.   The Atlanta Braves had just completed their first trip to the Fall Classic in four decades, and the Washington Redskins were undefeated, well on their way to their third Super Bowl title.   All across the eastern seaboard, sports fans were tasting success - while American Indians were in an uproar.   This year witnessed the peak of the protests over the use of mascots with American Indian themes.   With two of the major professional sports teams in question making front-page news across the country, many of us heard American Indians' complaints for the first time.   Suddenly, thanks to the cries of thousands of demonstrators, the names of many Americans' favorite teams had become synonymous with "nigger."   American Indians believe that the use of these mascots presents a slanderous stereotype of their society, and they demand immediate cessation of such usage.   Are these demonstrators justified?   According to the or ganizations in question, the choice of mascots based on American Indian themes was not intended to be derogatory and in most cases was instead intended to honor certain American Indian tribes or individuals.   In stark contrast, "nigger" was intended from its inception as a derogatory term for African-Americans; it is purposefully used to belittle its victims.   American Indians have made themselves victims here, choosing to be insulted where no insult was intended.   Because the intentions behind them are not slanderous, the use of mascots with American Indian themes should be continued.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Since its birth, "Indian's" definition has never been derogatory.   It dates back to the 15th century, when Christopher Columbus mistakenly applied the label to the natives of the ... ... - Heroic Symbol at Florida State." Seminoles Official   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Athletic Site.   18 May 1993. Online. Available:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.fansonly.com/schools/fsu/trads/fsu-trads-seminoles.html. 28 February   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1999. "Louis Sockalexis: The Cleveland Indian (1871-1913)." The Official Cleveland Indians   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Baseball Club Homepage. Online. Available:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.indians.com/history/sockalexis.html. 25 February 1999. Munson, Barbara. "Common Themes and Questions about the Use of 'Indian' Logos."   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   American Comments: A Web Magazine.   1997.   Online.   Available:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.iwchildren.org/barb.htm. 25 February 1999. "Native Americans." Microsoft Encarta 96 Encyclopedia. 1996 ed. CD-ROM. Microsoft Corporation, 1995. "Seminole Wars." Microsoft Encarta 96 Encyclopedia. 1996 ed. CD-ROM. Microsoft Corporation, 1995.   

Hypotheses Of The Effects Of Wolf Predation :: essays research papers

Hypotheses of the Effects of Wolf Predation Abstract: This paper discusses four hypotheses to explain the effects of wolf predation on prey populations of large ungulates. The four proposed hypotheses examined are the predation limiting hypothesis, the predation regulating hypothesis, the predator pit hypothesis, and the stable limit cycle hypothesis. There is much research literature that discusses how these hypotheses can be used to interpret various data sets obtained from field studies. It was concluded that the predation limiting hypothesis fit most study cases, but that more research is necessary to account for multiple predator - multiple prey relationships. The effects of predation can have an enormous impact on the ecological organization and structure of communities. The processes of predation affect virtually every species to some degree or another. Predation can be defined as when members of one species eat (and/or kill) those of another species. The specific type of predation between wolves and large ungulates involves carnivores preying on herbivores. Predation can have many possible effects on the interrelations of populations. To draw any correlations between the effects of these predator-prey interactions requires studies of a long duration, and statistical analysis of large data sets representative of the populations as a whole. Predation could limit the prey distribution and decrease abundance. Such limitation may be desirable in the case of pest species, or undesirable to some individuals as with game animals or endangered species. Predation may also act as a major selective force. The effects of predator prey coevolution can explain many evolutionary adaptations in both predator and prey species. The effects of wolf predation on species of large ungulates have proven to be controversial and elusive. There have been many different models proposed to describe the processes operating on populations influenced by wolf predation. Some of the proposed mechanisms include the predation limiting hypothesis, the predation regulating hypothesis, the predator pit hypothesis, and the stable limit cycle hypothesis (Boutin 1992). The purpose of this paper is to assess the empirical data on population dynamics and attempt to determine if one of the four hypotheses is a better model of the effects of wolf predation on ungulate population densities. The predation limiting hypothesis proposes that predation is the primary factor that limits prey density. In this non- equilibrium model recurrent fluctuations occur in the prey population. This implies that the prey population does not return to some particular equilibrium after deviation. The predation limiting hypothesis involves a density independent mechanism. The mechanism might apply to one prey - one predator systems (Boutin 1992). This hypothesis predicts that losses of prey due to predation will be large enough to halt prey population

George Washingtons Rules of Good Behavior

Janet FinchamAssignment # 8George Washington’s Rules of Good Behavior, ca. 1746HIST, 1107-USFEBUARY, 13, 20131. What did Captain Clark’s loud order of â€Å"all hands up and at their oars† cause the Indians to do? My peremptory order to the men, and the Bustle of their getting to their oars, Alarmed the chiefs, together with the appearance of the men on shore as the boat turned. 2. Why were the men {including Lewis and Clark} Awake all night?Peter Cruz at, our bowman, who could speaker mama, informed us in the night that the mama prisoners informed him we were to be stopped, we showed as little signs of a knowledge of their intentions as possible all prepared on board for anything which might happen, we kept a strong guard all night, no sleep. 3, what incidents and/or information might have led Lewis and Clark to the conclusion that of September 27?Captain Lewis with a guard, still on shore, the man who steered, not being much accustomed to steer, passed the bow of the boat, and the pirogue came broadside against the cable and broke it, which obliged me to order, in a loud voice, all hands up and at their oars. 4. What did the Indians do the morning of September, 28, 1804 and how did Lewis and Clark resolve the situation? Made many attempts in different ways to find our anchor, but could not: the sand had covered it, from the misfortune of last night our boat was lying at shore in a very unfavorable situation. . Why do you think Meriwether Lewis was so specific and detailed in his decryption of small and large wolf and the grizzly bear? Captain Clark thought he would weigh 500 pounds, for my own part, I think the estimate too small by 100 pounds, he measured 8 feet 7 ? inches from the nose to the extremity of the hind feet: 5 feet 10 ? inches around the breast: 1 foot 11 inches around the middle of the arm: and 3 feet 11 inches around the neck, his talons, which were 5 in number on each foot, were 4 3/8 inches in length, he was in good orde r. 6.What impression did the grizzly leave with Lewis and why did the bear leave that impression? Saw a brown {grizzly} bear swim the river above us, he disappeared before we could get in reach of him , I find that the curiosity of our party is pretty well satisfied with respect to this animal. 7. How does Sacagawea contribute to the expedition? Her labor soon proved successful, and she produced a good quantity of these roots. 8. Do you think she was appreciated or treated as† one of the boys â€Å"? YES because she contributed roots for dinner. 9.Considering the importance of the â€Å"corps of discovery â€Å"why do you think that Jefferson planned the journey in secret? Do you think he was correct in doing that? The square wife to taboo busied herself gathering the roots of the fennel called by the snake Indians YEAR –PAH for the purpose of drying to eaten on the Rocky Mountains, those roots are very palatable either fresh roots boiled or dried. †10. Do you think that you would have volunteered to go on the adventure? Yes why or why not? Because I like adventures, I love to explore wilderness it’s very interesting to me and you can learn different life styles.